Annotated Bibliography role in the domestication of animals
Introduction
The domestication of animals is particularly interesting subject for me, because these animals are some of the most important companions for humans. Besides, they also have fundamental sources food in the diet of man is, providing the man with the sources of protein. It would therefore be important to understand how the man managed to build a relationship with these creatures. It is also particularly interesting that some pets have their closest companions in the category of wildlife. For example, cats and panthers belong to the same family and so do dogs and wolves.
These similarities create a strong interest in the history of these animals, due to the fact that one would wonder why certain animals were domesticated closely associated, while others were not. It would also be interesting to know how knowledge of domestication spread to other parts of the world or whether it was a journey of discovery of all ancient communities. Accordingly, this paper last shed some light on these puzzles giving a detailed account of who, when, how and where the domestication of animals.
With respect the subject, I expected to find that the domestication of animals was done in different geographical regions and at different times. In addition, we expect to find that this process was something unique to man in which different societies had to do it in their own way. I also expect to see that animal domestication was a process synonymous with the Neolithic era. Consequently, the approach will work in this period of history.
After investigation, it was found domestication actually occurred at different times for different animals and in different geographical areas. Consequently, in order to understand the domestication process one must place the study in geographical and historical contexts.
Research Results
Encyclopedia Britannica (1990): Domestication, 19th edition, London, McMillan
The Encyclopedia Britannica (1990) describes the domestication as a process of reorganization wild animals and cultivated plants and domestic forms in alignment with the interests of human beings. Strictly speaking, refers to the domestication of some of the early stages of the domain of animals and plants. The main difference between wild and domestic animals is that the latter were created to meet the unique needs of man. In addition, domestic animals depend on the continued attention that man created for them by adapting to this process. The domestication of animals is definitely one of the highlights of human development, especially in relation to the question of material culture. Agriculture was also redefined after the domestication of animals, as is now seen as a combination of the combination of both plant and animal production.
In the last book, states that the first attempt to domestication of animals occurred during the Mesolithic era. As early as 9000 BC, there were hunters and gatherers tried to domesticate sheep, goats, dogs and, possibly, some pigs. However, it was not until the Neolithic era in which these animals were domesticated. In this time, agriculture was treated as a form of social activity and animal domestication became part of that process. Animals were domesticated during the year included pigs, dogs, sheep, cows and cats. Other pets like rabbits appeared in the following words, periods of history during the Middle Ages. Some animals such as bees were domesticated at the end of the Neolithic era. The last animal was domesticated in order to provide honey. Honey became an instrumental part of human nutrition in the years ahead. In fact, it was only two hundred years ago, when this product is no longer the only sweetener.
Fuller, D. (2006): Agricultural Origins in South Asia, Journal of World Prehistory, 20, 42
The last book provides some ideas on the relationship between domestic animals and their wild ancestors. According to the author, the similarities between these latter categories of animals are usually made by comparing function and structure. Furthermore, knowledge taken from the realms cytoplasmic genetic comparing genes and gene clusters are also particularly keen to understand the process of domestication. In general, the biochemical and morphological studies are the most important fact in understanding these relationships.
This latest book is insightful to understand that animals have undergone changes since the first attempt at domestication is so profound that it is often represented through differences between different breeds of animals. It is also imperative to note that more fundamental change associated with the domestication of animals is in terms their reproduction. Wild animals tend to reproduce through strict seasonal average change of pace. On the other hand, domestic animals tend to produce almost any time of year and moves very little occurs between them. The overall appearance and structure of domestic animals is fundamentally different from that of their ancestors wild.
During the beginning of domestication, primary recessive genes are usually removed from the animal in question and these genes usually constitute the framework necessary to create the changes that meet reproductive functions in animals. Nature has a way to store some of these recessive genes in animals wild genes are normally activated through the process of mutation between the groups in question. The latter is generally used by the efforts of the Exploding Man the patterns of reproduction so that the features highlighted will be able to respond to human needs.
In other words, this is what known as artificial selection. Artificial selection is fundamentally different from natural selection due to the fact that in natural selection, a system biological stabilization is created in which certain species can survive in the wild. Moreover, artificial selection is to break with these biological systems stable although the creation of a combination of genes that will make the animal in question can not survive in nature.
Savona-Ventura, C. & Mifsud, A. (1997): The mammals Neolithic Malta, London, Athlone Press
In his book, Savona-Ventura and Mifsud (1997) live in the process domestication of the prospect of Malta. The latter location was chosen because it is a most important archaeological site and is home to one of the richest sources pre-historic art. This area is particularly interesting for the fact that these drawings reflect principles of domestic animals like pigs, goats, oxen and sheep. Also there were a number of bone remains to justify these studies and discovered some of the animals included the horse, cat and dog. Certain peculiar animals, which have also been domesticated by man include rabbits, turtles and even sea urchin.
A number of representations inside these islands suggest that Neolithic cattle do not were introduced in the Maltese Islands. In contrast, the Neolithic man just found them there and chose to domesticate. The claims of the latter can be supported some beef bones were found inside tanks pliocestocene in specific locations. prehistoric rock art also indicates that the Neolithic society at that time was a hunter – gatherer society.
Recent studies also instrumental in highlighting the history of sheep domestication within these islands. A relief of art in one of the plates within these sites indicates the images of the sheep who have curves and spiral horns. This also implies drawings the latter could have been ancestors of the modern sheep. This is because the average measurement of a ram or sheep horns about the human remains inside those places. When it comes to the goat, the goat has been found that Malta has significant resemblance to the Egyptian and therefore the latter authors stated that Egypt may have been the origin principal. According to them, their bulky horns in his throat and lobes validate their assertions. In other words, the domestication of this animal produced by introducing another geographical location that is, Egypt.
In some Neolithic temples on the Borg in Nadur Malta Mnajdra and regions, you can see that there is indeed a surprising Today resemblance between the pig and the reliefs of the temples of pig last. This similarity is most closely associated with the former category the boar. Moreover, Malta's pig is probably a descendant of the boar as shown by some skeletal remains. Finally, the skeletal remains of dogs have been found in several caves Xemxihja. It was argued that these remains indicated a slender animal with a prominent spine. This indicates that there may be a similarity between the dog and the terrier. skeletal remains cat have also been found in the cave of the latter mentioned. The specimens found are generally much smaller than those of modern cats, but this indicates that may have been domesticated by Neolithic man at that time.
Hber, A. & Dayan, T. (2004): Analysis of the process of domestication – Hagoshrim as a case study, Journal of Archaeological Science, 31, 1600
The latter journal focuses mainly on the process of domestication through the use of an Israel based Neolithic site known as Hagoshrim. In this study, great attention is paid to cattle, pigs and goats as the bone fragments in the area mostly representing these mammals. Through the use of the latter site, it is possible to understand the process of domestication through time and space. This is because there are three layers of skeletal remains that were found in the latter area.
Three parameters were used to study this process and includes;
- Changes in body proportions
- size reductions
- Clear patterns
The latter authors found that the pig remains found were a reflection of the changes that had occurred during the seventh millennium. In other words, parts of the skeleton the first layer were fundamentally different from remains of the second and third layer. This indicates that the process of domestication of pigs are associated with this time of history (7th century).
In addition, livestock is still a process of domestication indicate quite different. In this sense, the post size and proportions of the skull was found to be gradual between the three layers of skeletal remains. Consequently, we can say that the domestication of cattle was carried out between a number of times and the last was a mammal of the latest developments that occurred during that time. Finally, the goats indicated no significant changes Skeletal through these three layers of historical sites which demonstrates that might have been the first mammals that have been domesticated from all other mammals.
All, in all, one can say that through this book, one may be able to understand the personal stories of some domestic animals more common in the process of domestication. In the description of the latter, one can say that some mammals adapted to their environments rather than relatively others. In other words this was the order that these mammals followed, was first goats, then the pig and the cow finally.
Kuijt, I. (2000): Life in Neolithic farming communities – identity, social organization and differentiation, Springer Publishers
This last book is particularly important in providing a context for the domestication of animals. Although this book can handle the issue of domestication as a sub or only a chapter, the general theme of the Neolithic man was important in the placement of domestication in context. The author begins by defining the real time frame of the time Neolithic, which in this case began as far back as 9500 BC in the Middle East. The last period was also closely related to the development of technology human.
At the beginning of this period, greater emphasis was given to agriculture and the end of it, the man began to use metal tools that were crucial in copper or bronze ages. Through this book, you may be able to understand that the Neolithic period was not a time-bound period, but must be treat it as a set of cultural and behavioral traits in the domestication of animals and crops is an important aspect. Climate conditions forced the man to seek other ways to survive there and the need to plant and develop agriculture. The domestication of animals was a natural part of this process. However, most changes in the Neolithic era did not occur simultaneously. Instead, the different cultural elements were adopted by different categories of people.
When you look Neolithic appearances in various parts of the world, we may find that the domestication of animals in certain parts of the world was out long before it did in others. For example, early attempts at agriculture and the domestication of animals therefore occurred in the Near East. It is also doubtful communities were established in other fields, such as Britain. In 9000 the community began to take other BC sedentary lifestyles, as Asia Minor and finally, North Africa and Mesopotamia. However, it is particularly interesting to note that attempts at domestication took place independently in some of regions of the world such as South Asia, Southeast Asia and Africa. Consequently, the use of domesticated animals was a trait that the characteristics of certain regions of the world and also formed an important part of these cultures.
However, the last book was important in the placement of the domestication of man in a context history. Throughout the book, one can understand some of the factors that pushed the man towards the domestication of animals and living a sedentary lifestyle as a whole.
Bellwood, P. (2004): First Farmers – the origins of agricultural societies, Blackwell Publishers
In this book, the author discusses some of the reasons behind the domestication of animals and the process itself. One reason was the gradual disappearance of the hunting and gathering style of life and adopting a sedentary lifestyle. In the process of carrying it out, man felt it was important to the animals they used to hunt closer to him. Some of the factors that determine these options includes life expectancy, mating patterns, diet, temperament and size of the animal.
People are asked chosen over other animals by the fact that some offered more benefits. For example, cattle and goats that provide human milk and that, therefore, serve as a renewable source of protein. In addition, some animals were chosen because of their ability to carry out both manual work and remain a source of food. Other animals may offer men's wool, hides and even fertilizers. There are millions of animals that man had the possibility to tame, but opted to settle in fourteen because proved most beneficial to him.
Through this book, one can understand some of the proponents of early domestication. In addition, can understand why the man decided to domesticate certain animals, while at the same time, ignore others. This book is important to place this issue in context.
Hayden, B. (1992): Models of domestication, Madison, Prehistory Press
In this book, the author explains how the man chose to move from one style of life of hunters and gatherers to a more sedentary. In addition, geographical explanations of where the domestication of animals occurred is also highlighted in the text.
The Middle East was one of the areas that started this phenomenon. The last region began with the domestication of the camel. Harshest climate began to receive in this region and, consequently, there was a need to look for areas conducive to install. The inhabitants of the region Middle East decided to move with their domesticated animals in different parts of the Afro Eurasia. Consequently, the phenomenon of domestication of animals spread very rapidly in the rest of the world. Climatic conditions also play an important role to play in determining the distribution of these animals. This was due to the crops and domesticated that man is better suited to certain environmental conditions.
In the book, states that the domestication of animals quickly spread to North Africa and Eurasia, because there were similarities in climatic conditions. However, the same can not be said of some parts of the world, like South Africa have not supported these animals or plants. Taking the example of Cebu Africa – the last animal falls into the category of cattle but is the only of all other races, and that is best suited to relatively warm areas of central Africa. In addition, cattle are also separate races that are more appropriate to the Fertile Crescent. Other animals such as the flame could not be exported to other parts of the world, because the Isthmus of Panama impeded their movement. Therefore, in addition climatic conditions, the spread of domestication of some animals was also affected by geography.
I pay, D. (2003): The Origins of Agriculture – A revolutionary perspective, Academic Press
The latter book addresses some of the causes and effects of the earliest forms agriculture during the neolithic period. According to the explanations made by the author, the domestication of animals and plants made it necessary for religious reasons, the overcrowding, stress and discovery. Regarding the first reason, the latter author explains that some excavations in Catalhoyuk represent the fact that the Neolithic revolution some of these first settlers preceded the development process of agriculture. In these accounts, shows that there were revolutionary transition within the psychology of man. In other words, man's beliefs about their world was changing and the symbols used to perform these perceptions were observed in the rituals of their community. Examples of symbols including
- Aurohcs horns
- Corpulent figures
Consequently, This anthropologist believes that the man decided to domesticate animals in order to meet this revolutionary period.
The latter author also tries to create a scenario in which one can understand this process of domestication through other explanations, such as the discovery and stress. He explains that the domestication was led by a discovery that had been carried out by food gatherers. The last group needed to move from one camp to another and realized they needed support through of their animals. Moreover, this latter category of individuals was of great responsibility for the language and the culture within the world as it is known today. Consequently, can say that they were those who led these changes.
Bahn, P (2004): The atlas of world archeology: Brown Reference Group Publishers
This last book is particularly important to understand some of the consequences of the domestication of animals. First, it should be noted that domestication animals reduces the need to live a lifestyle of hunting and gathering. Consequently, a sedentary lifestyle led to greater increases in the population. When man was still a hunter or a collector, as a way of life influenced the number of children that could be because the inhibition constant motion carrying more of a child. After the domestication of animals, man was a constant source of food and did not need to look in nature. This led to a higher rate of birth and a greater number of social groups in various communities.
With the birth of more children and a steady increase in populations, populations began to expand beyond what was expected. This led to certain forms of social organization such as governments. There was a greater surplus of food, therefore society began to form a social elite that was not directly involved in the production of such processes as agriculture, which dominated these communities in other perspectives.
It is also noted that through the domestication of animals, it is now possible for man to carry a series of events economic and social. For example, through this economic empowerment, people could have more children and eventually began emerging social classes. The Neolithic revolution characterized by the domestication of animals eventually led to a class-based society. In fact, the above companies had divisions class where he founded individual possessed the most wealth. In those days wealth was judged by the number of animals they owned one or the quantity of land property. Moreover, one can also say that the domestication of animals created most of the foundations of society as we know them today. For example, since man had food security now that he knew where they could eat, and then began to build more settlements and villages began to replace the lifestyles that had been synonymous with a lifestyle of pre-Neolithic. In fact, the diagram below illustrates how these changes occurred
Bands
↓
Tribes
↓
chiefdoms
↓
states
↓
empires
When human beings are still hunters and gatherers, they had no other time, but hunt and gather. Without Where there was a constant source of food and the people had installed, then it is possible to specialize in labor. This was the reason that settlements had Neolithic pots, baskets, leather etc domestication of animals caused more settlement that resulted in an egalitarian society.
McNamara, J. (2005): Cats dogs, the weather and the Neolithic Oxford Publishers
According to the latter author, the dogs were among the first animals to be domesticated, about a hundred thousand years. This idea is consistent with the fact that American Indians had dogs, but has no other pet that may have brought with them from Asia. This issue can be further understood by a comparison with other Neolithic settlements in the same place. Within the Americas, other communities were agriculture base. However, the Native Americans in pre-Columbian times were hunter-gatherers, but only had dogs. Historical facts indicate that dogs can have their origin in China. The dogs were central to Neolithic man, and protected their crops and man of the invaders.
Cats were domesticated however after several years. This could have been the result of vermin (rats, etc) that arose from overproduction food. Cats therefore feared the man the opportunity to get rid of these parasites. Archaeological evidence points to Egypt as the source of these cats. The agencies then reached much later than other pets to influence the course of the Neolithic revolution.
Conclusion
Domestication of animals is a complex process that has been the subject of several studies. In certain scenarios, some authors have treated in a dichotomous process while in other texts has seen as an ongoing process. Regardless of the view that an author decides to take, the domestication of animals is not a one step procedure and, indeed, took out through certain stages. However, there are still a number of generalizations can be made about domestication. For example, the domestication of almost all animals began with loose ties between man and beast. This meant that the animals under consideration began to break through the associations with wild ancestors. With the time, these connections beast man became so strong that it led to higher levels of interdependence and, ultimately, total reliance on domestic animals in man.
Through literature review, has also been shown that for the domestication of the case, then it must be accompanied by adaptations Structural necessary to exist in the home environment. In other words, wild animals as they were because they were not subjected to any form of interference by man, which can be direct or indirect. On the other hand, pets are totally dependent on man for nutrition, survival and reproduction. Without isolating a animal from the rest of the population, then it may be unable to fully tame.
It is also essential to understand that current domestic animals seen Today is the end result of a series of domestication changes that have been happening over time. This is seen by the skeletons of transition is still considered by a number of archaeologists and anthropologists. In addition, some of these cases the transition may not necessarily fully domesticated as some of them may still be able to living in nature. Examples here include reindeer, camels and elephants. This brings in a very important fact, that domestication should not only be treated as a phase reproductive animals which are completely isolated from their wild ancestors, but some flexibility should be maintained with regard to the possibility of semi-domestication.
Most of the work of the domestication of animals also shows that the main differences between types or stages of domestication have been caused by varying degrees of control that the man may have placed in the reproduction, survival and nutrition of these animals. In order to breed in captivity, the animals must have pre-adapted to that environment. Mode change or the rate on which an animal can be tamed depend on these factors. Consequently, the different stages of domestication from different animals were caused by various physiological, behavioral and ecological characteristics, most importantly, that the usefulness of animals to humans.
Domestication is a process that can best be identified through a combination of factors including the relative scarcity or availability of a particular species associated changes in demographic parameters such as age distribution, shape, body size and appearance of the different pathologies. All These criteria are essential to show exactly what a stage of domestication is studying the possibility and the family time that was required to get to that process. In addition, literature has shown that certain animals were domesticated first hand, while others were dispersed or introduced into a particular geographical area.
Taking into account all the studies on this latter domestication of pets by Neolithic man, a number of questions remain unanswered and these could provide potential sources of future research. For example, there is very little information that shows how different domestic animals interrelate in different regions. Most research is generally focused on the times or stages, but not on the differences of geographies. In addition, there is a need a thorough analysis of some of these differences.
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